Mustang

The Mission Archéologique Franco-Népalaise au Mustang (MAFNAM) was created in 2023 by the Ministry of Europe and Foreign Affairs (MEAE) in collaboration with the Department of Archaeology of Nepal and the University of California. It explores the high Himalayan region of Mustang, west of Nepal, to study the dynamics of settlement in the region through time.

Location and Research History
Framed by the Annapurna (8091 m) and Dhaulagiri (8167 m) ranges, the Mustang District in western Nepal is defined by its north-south corridor irrigated by the Kali Gandaki river. This natural passage provides a direct connection between the Tibetan Plateau and the Gangetic plains of India. Despite the significance of this Himalayan region, which once hosted major trade routes—particularly for the salt trade—archaeological interventions remain relatively few and, to some extent, dated.

Most excavations have been concentrated in the Lower Mustang region, beginning shortly after the area opened to foreigners in 1992. During this period, the Nepal-German Project on High Mountain Archaeology documented sepulchral caves and their associated open-air settlement remains, notably at Chokhopani and Mebrak. Excavations at these two sites established occupations dating from the late 2nd millennium BC to the 1st century AD.

This was followed, during the same period, by archaeological excavations at the fortified village of Khyinga Mound and the Phudzeling caves in the Muktinath Valley, as well as the Garab Dzong fort near Jomsom. Khyinga is the only site in Mustang where a rich stratigraphy, spanning from the 1st to the 16th century, has allowed for the identification of three main occupation phases. These phases help bridge a significant gap in the region’s material history during the 1st and 2nd millennia AD.

In Upper Mustang, archaeological research is scarcer but more recent. Mark Aldenderfer (University of California-Merced) has focused on funerary practices and paleogenetics to understand human settlement processes at high altitudes. This research is currently complemented by systematic surveys of Upper Mustang conducted as part of Marion Poux’s doctoral thesis.

Despite the excavations carried out in the 1990s in Lower Mustang, most have only been partially published; only one monograph has been dedicated to the Mebrak site, and a single doctoral thesis is available for the Khyinga site. Furthermore, these excavations are concentrated in specific areas of Lower Mustang, leaving much of the region yet to be explored and documented to better understand its settlement dynamics.

Objectives of the MAFNAM
The objective of the MAFNAM (Mission Archéologique Française au Népal-Arrondissement du Mustang) is to understand the diachronic settlement dynamics inherent to high-altitude contexts, as well as the interactions between Mustang and its neighbors in India, Tibet, and Central Asia across various chronological frameworks.

The methods implemented to achieve this rely on :
• Systematic surveys of the valleys.
• Ceramic and architectural studies (standing structures).
• Sampling for absolute dating (such as radiocarbon dating).

On one hand, the goal is to establish a reliable chronology for Mustang, which remains highly fragmentary. In this context, studies are being conducted on the evolution of local construction techniques and the establishment of a typo-chronology for ceramic production.

On the other hand, the project aims to develop a study of different models of macro-regional cultural and material interaction over time. This is based on the categorization and mapping of the various communication routes crossing the region, as well as on comparative studies.

The excavation campaigns (by year)

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  Mustang – 2023